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| IV. BUDDHISM
A. BUDDHISM IN INDIA Buddhism is a religious reaction to Vedism, like Jainism rooted in pre-Aryan ideals, based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (or Gotama) after he had attained enlightenment and become "the Buddha" during the 6th century B.C.E. Buddhism seeks to offer its adherents ways and means of attaining inner and outer peace, the freedom that comes from non-attachment to the world of material objects and physiological needs. Gods: Originally, Buddhism recognized neither a godhead nor an immortal soul. In Mahayana Buddhism (a later development), however, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are worshipped and take on aspects of divinity. Scriptures: "Three Baskets" of Wisdom--Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket), Sutta Pitaka (Teaching Basket), and Abhidahamma Pitaka (Metaphysical Basket); Dhammapada (Collection of the sayings of the Buddha). Terms and Concepts: Four Noble Truths: (1) Life is suffering (dukka). (2) Suffering is caused by craving (tanha). (3) Elimination of craving (tanha) alleviates dukka. (4) The way to eliminate tanha is the "Noble Eightfold Path." The Noble Eightfold Path: (1) Right views, (2) right aspiration, (3) right speech, (4) right conduct, (5) right livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness, (8) right contemplation. The first two stages refer to preliminary attitudes, the willingness to earnestly seek salvation. The following three stages represent social and moral requirements and involve prohibition of (a) taking of life (human as well as animal), (b) stealing, (c) wrong sexual relations, (d) lying and malicious gossip, (e) the use of drugs and intoxicants which might injure the body and cloud the mind. The final three stages are steps used in meditation to attain samadhi, a state of pure consciousness of the transcendent realm of nirvana. Nirvana: extinction of the flame of life-force, breaking of the chain of karmic cause and effect, un-time, un-space, beyond life and death. The term is used in two distinct senses, first, while the believer is still alive, it refers to the attainment of supreme inner peace; secondly, at the point of the believer's death, it refers to a state of non-existence. Self or soul: The Buddha denied the existence of eternal selves or souls. What we call our self is merely a temporary coming together of five skandhas (threads), a) body, b) perceptions, c) emotions, d) habits, and e) reason which disperse at the point of death. We are no more than a series of mental and physical states. Rebirth: Since there are no permanent souls, there is no essential self which might migrate to another body after death. However, cravings and desires not expunged prior to death, will cause another temporary self to come into existence. Rebirth can be compared to the process of lighting a new flame from one about to go out. The term reincarnation is not properly applied to early Buddhism, since after death nothing remains which might properly be reincarnated. On the other hand, as Buddhism developed the faith became much more responsive to the human need for hope and the pervasive tendency to believe in life after death. Characteristics of objects, organisms and persons of the world: dukkha (suffering), anatta (absence of soul or self), anica (impermanence). Life of the Buddha: Siddhartha Gautama (Gotama) was born around 563 B.C.E., the son of a wealthy Hindu raja (minor king) of the Sakya clan. His mother, Queen Maya, died when he was an infant. Before his birth it had been predicted that he would withdraw from the world if he were ever to experience the "four sights" of old age, disease, death, and a recluse. His father attempted to shield him from those "four sights." He was brought up in luxury, married a lovely princess (Yashodhara) and had a son, Rahula (impediment). One day he did view the "four sights," determined to discover the cure for human suffering, and left his family to become a wandering recluse. For years he practiced severe self mortification to no avail. He gave up such self-torture and practiced meditation. After withstanding the temptation of Mara (the lord of delusion and death), he achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi tree. He formulated his teachings, acquired followers, and founded a mendicant order, the Sangha of monks and nuns. He died at the age of eighty. Major schools: (a) Theravada or Hinayana (lesser vehicle) branch of Buddhism is based primarily on the teachings of the Buddha himself interpreted in terms of personal salvation of the individual through attainment of knowledge and sainthood. The goal is to become an arhat, a saint who has attained nirvana and is in effect beyond all earthly attachments. (b) Mahayana (greater vehicle) branch of Buddhism. This sect focuses primarily on the Buddha's compassion for all living beings engaged in a common search for salvation. Ashoka: Alexander the Great conquered portions of India in 326 B.C.E. and made those regions a Macedonian tributary. Less than ten years later Chandragupta Maurya cast the overlords out and set himself up violently as emperor of a vast medley of potentially quarrelsome state including Taxila, a magnificent city with possibly the greatest university of the ancient world. Neither Brahmins (priests) not farmers were expected to fight, hence both prayers and food were supplied during times of war. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara whose son, Ashoka, would become the greatest of Indian monarchs. Like his family, Ashoka was Hindu, and Buddhists were a minority at the time. The story goes that Ashoka was initially a harsh and cruel ruler like his grandfather, but was informed one day that a Buddhist prisoner who had been pitched into a large pot of hot water in the prison known affectionately as "Ashoka's Hell" refused to boil. The king was called to view the miracle. This moment changed his life and the fate of India and possibly the future of all the regionssuch as China that would eventually accept Buddhism. He ordered the prisoner who had been unjustly arrested released, and had the jailer boiled instead. When he heard that his army had defeated a rebellious tribe, he restored the lands taken to the rebels and sent a note of apology to his former enemies. He ordered the prison demolished and set the captives free because he felt guilty for having separated them from their loved ones. Then he accepted Buddhism, put on the robe of a Buddhist monk, and followed, we are told, the Noble Eightfold Path toward liberation while he continued to rule with wisdom and sensitivity. Instead of royal hunting parties he organized pilgrimages to Buddhist shrines. He is supposed to have built thousands of stupas (Buddhist places of worship) and founded countless monasteries. He also instituted regulations to protect forests and all sorts of wild animals. His reign was a reign of peace and piety, expressed in Pillar Edict II which defines the Law of Piety as "little impiety, many good deeds, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, purity." He sent missionaries to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, and Ceylon. Yet he did not support forced conversion or religious "hard sell" tactics. He ordered that statutes calling for universal love and religious toleration be carved into rock pillars in the various languages of the educated people and dispersed throughout his territories. While he sought to spread Buddhism, he wanted to make sure that his followers respected the faith of others, that charity, for example, must be given to holy ones of other religious traditions no less than to fellow Buddhists. He called himself the father of his beloved children who will not discriminate against them because of their diversity in creed. Among the rock edicts is the following: "Concord, therefore, is meritorious, to wit, hearkening and hearkening willingly to the law of piety as accepted by other people" (Rock Edict XII) B. BUDDHISM IN CHINA AND JAPAN During the first century C.E. Buddhism (primarily in the Mahayana form) was introduced into China by traders and missionaries via the Central Asian silk routes. Mahayana Buddhism differed form Hinayana Buddhism by its emphasis on bhakti (devotion) toward a compassionate Buddha and Bodhisattvas (human beings destined for Buddhahood) who sacrifice themselves for the welfare of others. The goal of Mahayana Buddhism is not merely to help the faithful attain Nirvana, it is to assist them to reach Buddhahood, become one with the absolute through a life of self sacrifice and active exercise of compassion. Three-Body Doctrine: According to Mahayana Buddhists, the Buddha manifests himself in three aspects as (a) a human being (the "Transformation Body"), (b) a celestial being (the "Enjoyment Body"), and (c) ultimate reality, the basis of Buddhahood (the "Truth Body"). In other words, one eternal, unchanging ultimate reality manifests itself as the historical Buddha and innumerable Bodhisattvas as well as innumerable celestial Buddhas. Reasons
for the success of Buddhism in China: Buddhism was introduced to China
during a period of political unrest. It appealed to the downtrodden masses
who found no solace in Confucian doctrines. Eventually Buddhism gained
state patronage.
© 1997 Ingrid H. Shafer
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