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| III.
CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism is not as much a religion in the traditional sense than a set of rules for proper human interaction, a system of social ethics concerned with the formal, external aspects of life. According to Confucius, human beings are essentially social creatures and innately capable of goodness. It is the task of man to discover his own natural capacities, bring his will into harmony with Heaven's decrees, and help create a well ordered, stable society. Confucianism places much emphasis on the idea of the "superior man"--the individual who has trained himself to do what is socially demanded. Despite its apparent lack of some of the characteristics of a "religion," it is a way of life grounded in faith in "Heaven" which does seem another name for divinity. Founder: Confucius (K'ung-fu-tzu, literally Master K'ung, 551 BCE - 479 BCE), for a while a minor governmental official who spent his later years as an itinerant teacher gathering disciples, and his final five years in semi-retirement in his native country of Lu. Confucius did not write his philosophy down but may have edited some of the classics which he used as texts. He apparently made an enormous impact on his disciples, however, who compiled the Analects, which records his sayings after his death. Because the collection was not written as a systematic philosophy, it contains contradictions and ambiguities. The Analects became the basis of the Chinese society and shaped the world view of most Chinese intellectuals throughout history. God(s): Confucius was not concerned with interpreting humanity's relationship to divinity but rather with setting ethical standards to be used by people in their daily interactions. However, he seems to have accepted the traditional idea of Heaven, T'ien, as "divine" principle identified with "the good." He also endorsed the traditional ceremonial ancestor cult. He approved of religious practices as long as they did not interfere with one's concern for strengthening one's character and environment in this life. Scriptures: Five Classics and Four Books--the "Confucian canon." Five Classics (from the times of Confucius or before)--Classic of Changes (I Ching: Book of Divination); Spring and Autumn Annals (supposedly written by Confucius himself, relating major events in his native state); Records of Ceremonial. Four Books (attributed to disciples and later followers)--the Analects (sayings and conversations of Confucius); the Book of Mencius (teachings of one of the greatest exponents of Confucianism); the Great Learning (treatise of Confucian ethics); the Doctrine of the Mean (discussion of universal harmony). Key Concepts: Five Cardinal Virtues--Jen (benevolence, sympathy, perfect virtue in personal interaction); Yi (sense of duty or responsibility); Li (manners, propriety, good form, ritual governing the various kinds of social relationships); Chih (wisdom, reflected in the sense of right and wrong); Hsin (good faith, trustworthiness, loyalty). The highest of those virtues is Jen, a collective term expressing all the qualities distinguishing civilized man from the savage. Five Relationships: the duties and obligations involved in the following five basic relationships--"right action": RULER/subject
------ loyalty/BENEVOLENCE
It is obvious that the fundamental matrix of the Confucian way of life is hierarchical. However, hierarchy is inextricably linked to a social view of humanity with its emphasis, on the one hand, on interrelationships and mutuality, and on the other, on maintaining the “proper” position within the pre-established social pyramid. Confucian philosophy considers humans essentially social animals whose mode of social interaction can be shaped. The proper balance of human relationships is partially achieved by the careful observance of social rules, convention, and etiquette (li), the social cultivation of jen, the implicit capacity for goodness and harmony in the individual. The Chinese concept of justice is not a cold intellectual principle, but a kind of compassionate wisdom (however, it is a wisdom which finds nothing at all amiss with torturing girls and women by breaking the bones of their feet in the foot-binding tradition). The concept of an abstract law which binds all persons is alien to Confucian thought. The maintenance of peace and harmonious relations (ho) within the community is more important than the notion of human rights. Individuals are always viewed as members of society. Sages, or "Confucian gentlemen" (who have mastered the li) are the models of behavior from which ordinary people learn. Ideally, the ruler should himself be such a model and should appoint only those who are models of te (virtue) to leadership positions. In principle all people can emulate the sages, and learn to conform to Li without conscious effort. Once they have acquired Jen, their lives will be in harmony with the Tao. There will be peace, order, and material well-being for everyone. Confucius, like Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu, seems to assume that human nature is essentially good (although this concept is implied rather than formally stated). He definitely considers human beings perfectible, and dedicates his life to that cause. While the Taoists tend to focus on the individual, Confucius considers man primarily within a social context, hoping to transform people through education. The Sage: For Confucius, the perfect man is precisely that--the chun-tzu, the "superior man" who personifies the virtue of jen (variously translated as benevolence, perfect virtue, goodness, human-heartedness. The Chinese character combines the sign for "man" with the sign for "two." The root meaning of the term is consequently social.), humanity (I am following Wing-Tsit Chan's interpretation). The chun-tzu is not particularly concerned with pampering his appetites, is punctual in fulfilling his responsibilities, has friends of high moral character. He is strong, determined, and speaks with slow deliberation (Aristotle would have applauded!). As a young man he showed filial piety at home, respect for his elders at all times, and entertained himself with the study of literature and the arts (which Lao-Tzu would consider a waste of time). He is guided through life by shu (altruism) and refrains from doing to others what he does not wish them to do to him. In contrast to Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu, Confucius emphasizes moral perfection and social adjustment. Instead of teaching his followers how to merge with the Tao he instructs them in ways of reaching t'ien (heaven). Society: Confucius views society like an organism consisting of a hierarchy of individuals grouped in hierarchical sub-relationships, and assumes that social and political problems are the result of lacking cohesion and harmony (externally expressed by proper etiquette). He insists on the vital importance of li (propriety, reverence) in social relationships. Civility and constant adherence to the established social code are symptoms of internal order. Confucius obviously assumes that form and content, the outer and the inner cannot be separated, and that human beings are incapable of fulfilling their potential without a ceremonial, ritualistic exoskeleton. In keeping with Chinese culture as a whole, Confucius considers women by nature inferior to men. The Mandate of Heaven: The legitimate ruler derives authority from heaven's will. The ruler is responsible for the welfare of the people and therefore for peace and order in the realm. This pre-Confucian idea reinterpreted by Mencius (4th century Confucian scholar) who argued that the rule of the truly moral king is characterized by his benevolence toward his people. His power is justified by the Mandate of Heaven which in turn manifests itself through his acceptance by the people. Thus a ruler who has been deposed or killed by his subjects has obviously lost the respect of "Heaven" and rebellion is justified (according to the Mandate of Heaven) as long as the rebels prove successful. Confucianism as Religion: While Confucianism was initially more of a moral system than a religion, it took on religious attributes after Confucian methods were adopted in education and civil service examinations during the 2nd century BCE Eventually sacrifices were performed at Confucius' tomb, temples were erected in his honor, and he was given at least semi-divine status, far higher than the position of mere ancestral spirits. Yet he was never as much the focus of worship and devotion as he was honored as the greatest sage of the past. In its rational and pragmatic approach to the problems of human life, Confucianism complemented the mystical tendencies found in Taoist and Buddhist traditions. Mencius: philosopher who elaborated on the teachings of Confucius. While Confucius only implies the natural goodness of man (unless we base our discussion on the statement that "man was born with uprightness"), Mencius constructs his entire doctrine around that premise. Mencius states clearly that human beings posses innate knowledge of the good as well as the innate ability to be good. He affirms that evil is caused by people's inability to avoid the negative influences of their environment. He believes that we can be taught to recapture our original goodness, and that the end of all learning is the recovery of our "lost mind." Sympathy, shame, reverence, propriety, humanity and wisdom are natural attributes of human beings and are found universally. He compares people to wheat. Differences in the eventual quality of specific stalks of grain are due not to differences in the seed but to differences in the soil and water supply. He insists on the primary importance of the people as against the power of the state or ruler. Bad rulers may be justly deposed; the very fact that a rebellion or conquest is successful serves as proof that the deposed ruler has offended "Heaven." Hsun-Tzu:
another Confucian who disagreed with both Confucius and Mencius (as well
as the Taoists) on the central issue of the original nature of man. Hsun-Tzu
is adamant: human nature is evil. Human beings are motivated by greed.
Allowing people to follow their natural bent only leads to conflict and
misery. By nature man is disorderly, lazy, violent and imbalanced. Only
education can save him. His goodness is due to the civilizing influence
of teachers and superiors. Compliance with social rules are contrary to
natural inclination. Without proper instruction the hungry individual would
simply reach for food without the slightest regard for his elders or superiors.
Society cannot survive without discipline, stern laws, and the authority
of the ruler.
© 1997 Ingrid H. Shafer
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