I. RELIGIOUS ROOTS

During the 2nd millennium B.C.E. the Chinese appear to have practiced forms of ancestor worship. They also employed oracle bones to elicit communications from spirits or gods. Both trends--ancestor worship and the fascination with determining the possible course of future events remained part of the Chinese religious structure through the ages. Eventually, Confucianism adopted many of the rituals of ancestor worship while Taoism practiced augury and sooth saying.

Long before the schools of Confucianism and Taoism developed, Chinese thinkers had already formulated a cosmic theory of a cyclic pattern of waxing and waning, of expansion and contraction. They symbolized this dynamic interplay of forces in the t'ai-chi t'u, or "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate." As one concentrates on the diagram it seems to become a vortex of rapid circular motion, of the constant interpenetration of the archetypal poles of nature, the yin and the yang. The symbolism is sexual, but not only sexual. The yin and the yang may be considered the primal parents of the universe whose mating generates all of reality, but they are also, and more importantly, complementary principles, neither of which can exist apart from the other. yin, the dark, receptive, yielding, intuitive, feminine principle is inextricably intertwined with yang, the light, creative, active, rational, masculine principle. Both are equally essential to the whole. They are of macro- and microcosmic significance, representing in their union the Tao as well as the two aspects of human psychology contemporary theorists have identified with the two brain hemispheres. In addition, yin represents the private, inner, individual realm while yang represents the public, outer, social realm. This polarity provides an excellent illustration of the essential differences in orientation found in the philosophic schools of Taoism and Confucianism. The Taoists were closer to the yin, the Confucians closer to the yang. It also explains how in practical life the Chinese have been able to balance both approaches (and even include Buddhism).

Among the oldest and most venerated records of Chinese mystical wisdom is the I Ching, the Book of Changes, containing interpretations of sixty four six-line figures (hexagrams), cosmic archetypes representing the patterns of the Tao as applied to human situations and relationships. The hexagrams are symbolic of the interplay of the polar forces, yin and yang, whose movements constitute the Tao, the mysterious center of existence. The hexagrams consist of all possible combinations of the two types of lines, the feminine yin (----  ----) and the masculine yang (-----------). The constitution of a particular hexagram is determined by an elaborate ritual involving fifty yarrow stalks or the casting of coins. For thousands of years the I Ching has been consulted, not merely or even primarily to foretell the future, but to discover the cosmic pattern of a given moment so that action could be matched to the dynamics of the times. Thus, the I Ching is a book of wisdom, expressing the essence of early Chinese moral philosophy.

II. TAOISM

Taoism is an ancient faith centered around the concept of the Tao (literally "the way"), the inexpressible source of being, the divine principle which underlies nature sometimes referred to as the "mother of all things." The followers of Taoism did not trust conventional knowledge and reasoning and rejected the artificial world of civilized society and etiquette. They realized that transformation and change are essential features of nature. While Confucianism stressed the masculine, active, rational, and social side of human nature, Taoism emphasized the feminine, yielding, intuitively-mystical, and private part. This the relationship of Confucianism to Taoism is itself an example of the yang-yin interplay of dynamic opposites. 

Founder: Lao-Tzu (literally "Old Master") who supposedly lived during the early part of the 6th century B.C.E., but may have lived either later (4th century B.C.E.) or not at all. Chuang-Tzu (ca. 369 B.C.E. - ca. 286 B.C.E.) was the most distinguished representative of later Taoism and is considered one of the formulators of Taoist thought.

Scriptures: Tao Te Ching (the Classic of the Way and its Power), according to tradition written by Lao-Tzu.

Key concepts: the Tao, introduced in the Tao Te Ching as follows: "The Tao that can be expressed is not the eternal Tao; the name that can be defined is no the unchanging name...There is a thing inherent and natural, which existed before heaven and earth. Motionless and fathomless, it stands alone and never changes; it pervades everywhere and never becomes exhausted; it may be regarded as the Mother of the Universe. I do not know its name. If I am forced to give it a name, I call it Tao, and I name it supreme...Man follows the laws of earth; earth follows the laws of heaven; heaven follows the laws of the Tao; and Tao follows the laws of its intrinsic nature."

What is this Tao? The concept transcends the powers of reason and must be grasped intuitively, it is beyond words, beyond all differences and distinction, it is the unchanging, permanent reality of constant change, it is the ground of being and nonbeing, it is akin to the Hindu concept of the Brahman.

Chuang-Tzu describes the Tao allegorically as the interpenetration of the yin and the yang: "I saw yin, the Female Energy, in its motionless grandeur; I saw yang, the Male Energy, rampant in its fiery vigour...The two penetrated one another, were inextricably blended and from their union the things of the world were born."

Tao (way) is the creativedestructive force that brings everything into being and dissolves everything into nonbeing; return (fu) is the destiny of everythingthat is, everything, after completing its cycle, returns to nonbeing. Hence nonaction (wu-wei), or action in harmony with nature, the flow of the Tao, is the best way of life. Chuangtzu taught that all oppositions are merely figments of reason and imagination and have intrinsic value of better or worse. Hence the wise person accepts the vicissitudes of life. Those who follow the Tao can lead a long and tranquil life by eliminating desires and curtailing aggression. 

The Sage: Lao-Tzu assumes that by nature human beings are good and that evil is the result of inappropriate social interaction and activity which precipitate such vices as excessive desire, malcontent and greed. His teachings concerning human nature and purpose consist primarily of descriptions of the wise man, the sage who represents his ideal . He describes the sage as impartial (not unkind or unloving as this passage has been interpreted), but beyond petty concerns. He is like water and benefits all things without competing with them. Again and again Lao-Tzu points to the destructiveness of competition and active striving. The sage is like the infant, the uncarved block of wood, the valley--lowly, simple, all-embracing potentiality. The sage exemplifies te (the Tao as manifested in particular; virtue). He loves the earth, humanity, loyalty, order-the substantially real, not the superficially apparent. Lao-Tzu is suspicious of the trappings of civilization (while in no way suggesting that human beings would not enjoy a simple communal life), stating that revolutions and ways are the result of weapons and laws create criminals. The wise man, he says treats the good and evil alike with goodness, and does not accumulate for himself. He receives by giving and rules by not ruling. He discards the excessive, extreme, extravagant.

Development of Taoism: Lao-Tzu first formalized Taoism, Chuang-Tzu presented a considerably more coherent philosophical system, developing cosmology (theories of the origin of the universe), metaphysics (theories of the nature of reality) and epistemology (theories of the nature of knowledge). In Lao-Tzu the Tao is essentially natural, in Chuang-Tzu it becomes transcendental. Lao-Tzu seeks to reform society; Chuang-Tzu is concerned with self-transcendence. Lao-Tzu thinks in terms of being generated from non-being and emphasizes spontaneity and constancy; Chuang-Tzu adds the concept of becoming and makes change the major theme of his deliberations. Like the early Greek philosopher Heraclitus he views the universe as a cosmic process of transformation, involving innumerable stages succeeding one another. He focuses on the flux of and in things. He even proposed a theory of evolution from tiny silk-like plants via insects and horses to man. To Chuang-Tzu, opposites are truly one. Chuang-Tzu's ideal man knows his nature (which is unique), nurtures it and adapts it and himself to the universal process of transformation. He obtains liberation or enlightenment by abandoning the illusion of distinction and grasping the unity which underlies multiplicity. He is in touch with his own being-as-becoming and travels beyond the mundane world. The sage realizes that vacuity and tranquility are the roots of all things. Like Lao-Tzu, Chuang-Tzu stresses the value of inactivity, of simply moving with the current of the Tao.

The Carver Named Ting: Chuang-Tzu's teachings are beautifully summarized in the story of the carver (butcher) Ting in the Kingdom of Wei. The carver's movements as he dissected a carcass were as graceful as those of a dancer. Without expending any apparent effort he accomplished his task. When asked about his method he explained that he was a lover of the Tao. Years ago, when he began his meat cutter's career, he fixed his eyes onto the carcass before him. After three years he began to visualize the parts and organs as though they were already separated. Finally he came to apprehend the very internal structure of the carcass with his soul. Intuitively, his knife would follow the natural markings, separating the whole into its parts without ever touching bone or sinew or gristle. This is the way Chuang-Tzu suggests that we live our lives, conserving our vital force (the carver had used his knife for nineteen years without damaging the blade), in tune with the Tao.

Neo-Taoism: Chuang-Tzu's emphasis on the individual led to the over-all importance of particular nature in particular things in the works of Kuo Hsiang (the first and most important commentator of Neo-Taoism). Unlike Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu, he feels that the sage need not withdraw into the wilderness to realize himself. The sage embraces all things, and rises above human affairs while participating in them and responding spontaneously to problems as they arise.

Goal of life: The aim of the wise man is to attain harmony with the Tao by desiring nothing, living simply, acting by not acting: "The sage knows everything without traveling; He names everything without seeing it; He accomplishes everything without doing it." The Taoist cherishes individualism and solitude as essential to the spiritual life. Understandably, the Taoist distrusts government, bureaucracy, and rulers. The ideal ruler is one who does not rule. The external artificialities of social life as practiced by the Confucians (or upper classes of "scholars and gentlemen") are rejected.

Later Taoism: The aim of mystical and spiritual "immortality" of participation in the eternal sought by the early Taoists gradually gave way (in popular practice) to a pragmatic concern for longevity or even physical immortality. Taoist priests became alchemists, magicians and shamans in search of some magic elixir to produce a special edible gold which might confer immortality. They prepared charms, practiced numerology and astrology, foretold the future. Under the influence of Buddhism, Taoism began to develop an elaborate pantheon of deities and spirits as well as heavens and hells or purgatories. Lao-Tzu (as one of the three Supreme Ones) became the focus of an elaborate temple cult. Monasticism was introduced along with the ritual of community renewal, and belief in revealed scriptures. Taoist liturgy and theology were influenced by Buddhism. Its scriptures, the Taotsang, totals more than 5,000 chapters.

©  1997 Ingrid H. Shafer
Last revised 6 January 2002